High Frequency of Illegal Drug Use Influences Condom Use Among Female Transgender Sex Workers in Argentina: Impact on HIV and Syphilis Infections.

The high prevalence of HIV and syphilis found among female transgender sex workers (FTSWs) in Argentina calls for the study of factors leading to negative health consequences. Given the particular characteristics observed in this population (high marginalization, school dropout, and low adherence to healthcare services), we explored the association of several socio-demographic characteristics with syphilis and HIV infections, and the determinants of condom use. This study revealed that FTSWs from Argentina were exposed to several risk factors decreasing thus their ability to negotiate condom use and leading to increased risk for transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Strategies to reduce HIV and syphilis in this population should consider interventions aimed at decreasing violence and substance use which appear to be the most important determinants. Results of this study will contribute to the global information among FTSWs.

Presence of IgG anti-gp160/120 antibodies confers higher HIV capture capacity to erythrocytes from HIV-positive individuals.

BACKGROUND: HIV binding has been demonstrated in erythrocytes from HIV-positive and HIV-negative individuals. However, the presence of immunoglobulins G anti-HIV (IgG anti-HIV) in erythrocytes from HIV-positive individuals is still to be elucidated. Moreover, the capacity of erythrocytes from HIV-positive individuals to capture an additional amount of HIV has not been studied. Indeed, it is unknown if HIV binding to erythrocytes in HIV-positive persons could have consequences on the cell-free infectious virus available. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: IgGs anti-HIV associated to erythrocytes were found in 77.3% (58/75) of the HIV-positive individuals studied and the IgGs anti-gp160 and anti-p24 were the most frequently found. We found a positive association between detectable plasma viral load (pVL) and presence of IgGs anti-HIV associated to erythrocyte (p<0.005), though the anti-p24/160 were present with or without detectable pVL. The HIV capture capacity was higher in erythrocytes from HIV-positive than HIV-negative individuals (p<0.0001). Furthermore, among the HIV-positive individuals the higher viral capture capacity was associated with the presence of anti-gp160/gp120 on erythrocytes. Moreover, the viral capture by erythrocytes was independent of pVL (rho=0.022, p=0.8817). Additionally, reduction of cell-free infectious virus and available viral load was observed in the presence of erythrocytes from HIV-positive individuals. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Results suggest that in HIV-positive individuals, erythrocytes are capable of capturing high amounts of HIV by the presence of IgGs anti-gp160/120 on their membranes and this may produce a reduction in the available free virus. Finally, the current measurement of pVL would underestimate the real viral quantity due to the HIV binding through specific antibodies to erythrocytes.

First report on sexually transmitted infections among trans (male to female transvestites, transsexuals, or transgender) and male sex workers in Argentina: high HIV, HPV, HBV, and syphilis prevalence.

OBJECTIVES: Due to the scarce data on the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among male-to-female trans-sex workers (TSW) and male sex workers (MSW) in Argentina, the present study aimed to estimate the incidence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and the prevalence of HIV, hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and Treponema pallidum. Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Chlamydia trachomatis infections were tested among TSW. METHODS: Two hundred and seventy-three TSW and 114 MSW were recruited by nongovernmental organizations. HIV incidence was estimated by STARHS (serologic testing algorithm for recent HIV seroconversion). HPV and C. trachomatis infections were tested in anal cells from TSW. RESULTS: TSW showed significantly higher prevalences of HIV (34.1 vs. 11.4%), HBV (40.2 vs. 22.0%), and T. pallidum (50.4 vs. 20.4%) than MSW. TSW tested positive for HPV in 111/114 cases and for C. trachomatis in 4/80 cases. Investigation of HBV, HCV, HIV, and T. pallidum co-infections showed that 72% of TSW and 39% of MSW had at least one STI. T. pallidum was the most frequent mono-infection. The estimated HIV incidence was 10.7 per 100 person-years (95% confidence interval (CI) 3.8-17.7) for TSW and 2.3 per 100 person-years (95% CI 0-6.7) for MSW. CONCLUSIONS: The high prevalence of STIs and the high incidence of HIV demonstrate the great vulnerability of these high-risk populations and indicate the urgent need for preventive strategies on intervention and facilitation of access to healthcare programs.

Human papilloma virus genotype diversity of anal infection among trans (male to female transvestites, transsexuals or transgender) sex workers in Argentina.

BACKGROUND: Reports on the prevalence and genotypes of HPV among trans (male to female transvestites, transsexuals or transgender) sex workers (TSW) are scarce in the literature. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to determine the infecting HPV genotypes among TSW in Argentina. STUDY DESIGN: 119 TSW were recruited. Anal cells were self collected with a cytobrush. HPV DNA detection was carried out by PCR and genotyping was performed by RLB. RESULTS: HPV prevalence was 97.4%. 103/111 HPV positive samples were genotyped. High risk genotypes were detected in 82.5%. Two or more coinfecting HPV genotypes were found in 70.9%. One case showed up to 10 different coinfecting types. The number of genotypes was not related to condom usage. Infection rates were similar for HIV positive (100%) and HIV negative (95.8%) participants. However, 18.8% of HIV negative had 4-9 different genotypes, while among HIV positive this percentage raised to 46.2% (p=0.006). Prevalence of high risk genotypes and the frequency of each high risk type were similar between HIV positive and HIV negative groups. According to the participants' answers HIV status showed no association with condom usage. CONCLUSIONS: The high HPV prevalence, the coinfection with multiple genotypes and the high frequency of high risk genotypes detected, together with a situation of extreme social marginalization, discrimination and stigmatization make this population to be of extreme vulnerability.

Presence of p24-antigen associated to erythrocyte in HIV-positive individuals even in patients with undetectable plasma viral load.

BACKGROUND: HIV adherence to erythrocytes has been demonstrated in vitro, and it has been suggested that erythrocytes may be carriers of the virus. However, the association between HIV particles or viral proteins and erythrocytes in HIV-infected individuals is still to be elucidated. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: HIV-positive participants (n =112) were classified into two groups according to values of three plasma viral loads (pVL) determined during the 12-month period prior to the study. The first group included 71 individuals with detectable pVL, whereas the second group included 41 individuals with undetectable pVL. Plasma viral load, erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen and p24-antigen in plasma were determined at the moment of the study. A total of 51 out of the 71 patients with detectable pVL showed erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen whereas 13 showed p24-antigen in plasma. Twenty-two out of the 51 patients with erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen showed pVL<10,000 copies/ml and undetectable p24-antigen in plasma. The data indicates that the amount of erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen was not related to p24-antigen in plasma or pVL levels in this group. Among the 41 patients with prior undetectable pVL, eight presented detectable pVL and erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen at the moment of the study. The other 33 showed undetectable pVL and five of these presented erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen. A positive relationship was found between the presence of erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen and the detectable pVL at the moment of the study (p<0.00001). Even more, in another series of assays, a detectable viral load associated to erythrocytes was determined and it was always accompanied by erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen detection. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: This study demonstrates the presence of erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen in HIV-infected individuals. Since erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen is not always related to pVL or p24-antigen in plasma, erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen showed viral expression not represented in plasma. Therefore, the determination of erythrocyte-associated p24-antigen may contribute to better understand the kinetics and/or evolution of HIV infection.

Centrifugation improves the detection of HIV-1 p24 antigen in plasma from children born to mothers infected with HIV-1.

Detection of HIV proteins and/or nucleic acids is necessary for the diagnosis of perinatal HIV infection. Despite its low sensitivity, detection of p24 antigen in plasma is a simple and economic method for the diagnosis of HIV in exposed children. The aim of this study was to improve the sensitivity of detection of p24 using centrifugation of plasma. Forty-seven selected stored samples from 37 children (23 infected, 14 uninfected, median age of 137 days) were examined. Plasma samples (volume 0.3-1.5 ml) were defrosted, centrifuged at 23,500 x g at 4 degrees C for 60 min and determination of p24 was carried out in the resuspended pellet (0.12 ml). In 32 plasma samples from infected children, p24 was found originally in 6 (18.7%) and resulted positive in 24 (75%) pellets. When only one sample per child was considered, sensitivity was significantly higher in pellets, 3/23 uncentrifuged plasma samples and 15/23 pellets (McNemar Test, p<0.001). Specificity was 100%. The absorbance/cut-off ratio was always higher in the pellets from positive children (p=0.028). Plasma samples with volumes of 1 ml or more achieved a higher sensitivity (91.7% vs. 36.4%, p=0.009). Centrifugation of plasma samples prior to determination of p24 in pediatric patients resulted in a significant increase in sensitivity.

[Progression of autosomic dominant polycystic kidney disease. Influence of endothelial NO synthase (ecNOS) and renin angiotensin system gene polymorphisms]. / Progresión de la poliquistosis renal autosómica dominante. Influencia de polimorfismos de genes de sintasa endotelial del óxido nítrico (ecNOS) y del sistema renina-angiotensina.

Glomerular filtration rate decline (GFRd) is variable in autosomic dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). In 88 ADPKD patients, GFRd was assessed by 1/S(Cr) and compared with the association to AT1A1166C (AT1R), AGTM235T (angiotensinogen) and ecNOSGlu298Asp (NO endothelial synthase) polymorphisms. Age at S(Cr) values of 2 and 6 mg/dl were assumed as beginning of progressive phase (A2) and end-stage-renal disease (A6), respectively. Polymorphisms were studied by PCR-RFLP. The group as a whole showed GFRd (ml/min/year) of 6.9+/-0.5; A2 and A6 of 48.9+/-1.3 and 55.0+/-1.4 years and mean arterial pressure of 111.2+/-1.2 mmHg. When A6 was considered, two populations were defined (< or = and > 55 years). In < or = 55 (assumed as PKD1 phenotype) (n=42), A2 and A6 of the AT1 1166CC genotype were 36.0+/-1.2 and 41.4+/-0.9 years vs AA-AC (42.8+/-1.0 and 47.5+/-0.8, p<0.001). A2 and A6 of the ecNOS298Asp/Asp genotype were 34.8+/-1.5 and 41.1+/-0.6 years vs. Glu/Glu-Glu/Asp (42.4+/-0.9 and 47.1+/-0.8, p<0.02). In AGT235TT genotype, GFRd was 12.4+/-2.2 ml/min/year vs MM-MT (7.9+/-0.7, p<0.03). This difference was also observed when all ADPKD patients were considered (TT: 11.02+/-1.5 vs. MM-MT: 6.44+/-0.5 ml/ min/year, p<0.003). AT1 1166CC and ecNOS 298Asp/Asp are associated with earlier A2 and A6 whereas AGT 235TT induce twofold increase in GFRd, suggesting that RAS and ecNOS are involved in ADPKD progression.

Progresión de la poliquistosis renal autosómica dominante. Influencia de polimorfismos de genes de sintasa endotelial del óxido nítrico (ecNOS) y del sistema renina-angiotensina. / [Progression of autosomic dominant polycystic kidney disease. Influence of endothelial NO synthase (ecNOS) and renin angiotensin system gene polymorphisms]

Glomerular filtration rate decline (GFRd) is variable in autosomic dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). In 88 ADPKD patients, GFRd was assessed by 1/S(Cr) and compared with the association to AT1A1166C (AT1R), AGTM235T (angiotensinogen) and ecNOSGlu298Asp (NO endothelial synthase) polymorphisms. Age at S(Cr) values of 2 and 6 mg/dl were assumed as beginning of progressive phase (A2) and end-stage-renal disease (A6), respectively. Polymorphisms were studied by PCR-RFLP. The group as a whole showed GFRd (ml/min/year) of 6.9+/-0.5; A2 and A6 of 48.9+/-1.3 and 55.0+/-1.4 years and mean arterial pressure of 111.2+/-1.2 mmHg. When A6 was considered, two populations were defined (< or = and > 55 years). In < or = 55 (assumed as PKD1 phenotype) (n=42), A2 and A6 of the AT1 1166CC genotype were 36.0+/-1.2 and 41.4+/-0.9 years vs AA-AC (42.8+/-1.0 and 47.5+/-0.8, p<0.001). A2 and A6 of the ecNOS298Asp/Asp genotype were 34.8+/-1.5 and 41.1+/-0.6 years vs. Glu/Glu-Glu/Asp (42.4+/-0.9 and 47.1+/-0.8, p<0.02). In AGT235TT genotype, GFRd was 12.4+/-2.2 ml/min/year vs MM-MT (7.9+/-0.7, p<0.03). This difference was also observed when all ADPKD patients were considered (TT: 11.02+/-1.5 vs. MM-MT: 6.44+/-0.5 ml/ min/year, p<0.003). AT1 1166CC and ecNOS 298Asp/Asp are associated with earlier A2 and A6 whereas AGT 235TT induce twofold increase in GFRd, suggesting that RAS and ecNOS are involved in ADPKD progression.